Critical Review on the Research Paper Assignment Sample
INTRODUCTION
The foundation of population health is epidemiology, which can be defined as the study of the “distribution and determinants” of diseases or disorders among groups of people, as well as the generation of information about how to prevent and control them in large groups of people. Detection of a disease or ailment occurs through epidemiological research, which allows us to know not only who has it, but also why and how it was brought to this individual or location. According to the definition of epidemiology, it is the scientific, methodical, and data-driven investigation of the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states and occurrences (not only illnesses) in a given population, employing scientific methods and data collection methods (neighborhood, school, city, state, Country, global). This study’s findings will be applied to the prevention and treatment of health issues, among other things.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this study is to critically review the epidemiology for public health.
- The objective of this study is to know the impact of public health policies.
- To know the differences between methodologies and methods used in health and public research.
- To know the expected outcomes of the research.
EVALUATING THE EVIDENCE USED IN DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING PUBLIC HEALTH MEASURES AND OTHER PUPULATION ASSESSMENT
The purpose of this study is to investigate three critical characteristics of evaluative research in the context of evidence-based health-care delivery. The first and most important question to ask is if the study is sufficient to support a decision on whether an intervention should be carried out or not. In response to the second question, what conclusions may be derived from the investigation’s findings? Determine whether or not the findings can be extended to other people who may benefit from the intervention in the future is also critical.
Additionally, the quantity of evidence utilized to identify the cause of public health actions has had a significant influence on the ability to evaluate the efficacy of those initiatives. Despite the fact that it is still contentious, the use of study design as the key criterion for evidence credibility is becoming more common. RCTs for sophisticated programmatic treatments, difficulty in interpreting data, and a tendency to dismiss observational research are all topics that have risen to the top of the debate agenda in recent years. Numerous public health programmed will require a varied variety of complicated and community-based solutions in the wake of the deployment of randomized controlled trials and improved medications. Some have asserted that because these programmed are not constructed in a controlled manner, randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are incapable of dealing with the dynamism and complexity of the programmes under consideration. One of the criticisms levelled against the approaches is that they are too rigid and unsuitable for evaluating relatively simple, homogeneous, and unvarying therapy in public health settings. Many of these objections are based on so-called “conventional” randomised controlled trials, in which an intervention is standardised and a single individual is randomly allocated to one of two groups by chance, rather than on scientific evidence. Non-standard medications can be used in randomised controlled trials, which is something that some opponents of clinical trials appear to have ignored in their arguments against them. The use of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) to investigate the efficacy of social interventions has a long history of success, as demonstrated by the numerous studies that have been conducted. A squandered opportunity occurs when non-randomized investigations are conducted in situations where randomised controlled trials would have been feasible due to the advantages of this research design. In our opinion, randomised controlled trials in public health are being abandoned by evaluators all over the globe because they are being used for the wrong reasons. Their incorrect notion is that these trial designs are only suitable for examining traditional, basic therapies that are focused at people. The direction in which this trend is moving is something that we are concerned about. In spite of the fact that it is not always practicable, a properly conducted randomised controlled trial (RCT) is still the most successful study approach when it comes to showing a causal link between an intervention and its intended effects. Nevertheless, when it comes to public health programmes, the design of a research study is insufficient for determining the validity of the findings of the project.
(3) The findings of the study, as well as the conclusions reached as a result of them
As a result of the use of early criteria for assessing the quality of public health programmes, there has been some dispute over how to evaluate results in general, and notably negative outcomes in particular. In the lack of precise contemporary interpretations of findings that are not clear, it might be difficult to discern between strong evidence of ineffectiveness and being unable to verify underlying effectiveness, which can be difficult to separate.
Negative effects should be properly examined, whilst positive outcomes should not be brushed off as a result of inexperience or ignorance. According to the evidence, there is a problem with the way the study is being assessed (i.e., a failure). Consider whether or not you feel that the programme has had a true lack of effect (i.e., whether or not you believe it has been a complete failure). If a programme fails, it can be ascribed to either a flaw in the intervention itself (that is, a failure of intervention theory) or a flaw in the way in which the program’s components are implemented (a failure of programme execution). There have been instances where authors of systematic reviews have failed to take into account some critical criteria, such as the long-term stability of the programme under consideration, the efficacy with which it was carried out, and the accuracy with which its outcome measurements were carried out. In the absence of these data points, it is hard to interpret negative findings as meaning that an intervention was useless. In the end, what matters most is that proof of great execution, along with other methods of keeping track, be kept in mind regardless of the outcome of the evaluation process. c) The significance of observational study in the field as a method of learning
Observational research studies are a form of research study that is used to evaluate the effectiveness of health treatments, particularly those that are aimed at improving public health outcomes. This type of research design is often the most realistic, acceptable, and/or relevant choice available in a given situation. As a result of logistical and financial constraints, many complex public health programmes, including cluster randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cannot be assessed using randomised controlled trials (RCTs). As a result, high-quality randomised controlled trials in public health are rare and far between. There are three unexpected consequences of our reliance on empirical data that we should be aware of. We must improve our ability to discern between observational designs (a) and our understanding of bias (b); we must also be pragmatic about the importance of study design in comparison to other factors of quality in assessment research (Tangcharoensathien,2018).
WHAT ARE THE INTERVENTION OUTCOMES?
An evaluation of the range of outcomes that have been studied should be included in any assessment of the sufficiency of the evidence concerning an intervention. (a) The interests of those who might be involved in deciding or delivering an intervention, as well as (importantly) their effects; (b) unanticipated as well as anticipated effects of the intervention, both beneficial and detrimental, as well as its efficiency and effectiveness; and (c) evaluation criteria should aid in determining whether the measured outcomes encompassed all three of the aforementioned considerations.
- Identifying the stakeholders who require particular outcome information and obtaining their consent.
When it comes to public health, it is critical to consider the interests of all relevant stakeholders, not just those who were engaged in the conduct or evaluation of the evaluation research, when evaluating the data. Both the decision-makers and those who will be influenced by the intervention are significant stakeholders in the intervention process. As a result, while doing evaluative research, it is not always clear who’s interests have been (or should have been) taken into consideration (or should have been). Following a long tradition in the social sciences known as utilization-focused evaluation, this approach is in accordance with the guidelines.
Consequences that were anticipated and those that were unforeseen (b) Public health programmes that combine a wide range of biological, educational, social, and policy measures that can have a variety of effects on people, communities, and the environment may all be beneficial to all of them. Expected or unanticipated, they might be the outcome of purposeful or inadvertent activities, and they can occur in any number of ways. Occasionally, unforeseen results of an intervention may be preferable to the anticipated outcomes of the intervention under specific circumstances. Unexpected repercussions, on the other hand, may detract from the targeted objectives to the point that a new appraisal of the intervention’s effectiveness is required. If only the planned outcomes of an intervention are included in an evaluation’s findings, the unintended consequences of the intervention may go undiscovered. Unanticipated programme results can be identified through the use of goal-free evaluation methodologies.
- b) The effectiveness of the intervention
Despite the fact that evidence-based medicine is developed with efficiency in mind, it hasn’t paid much attention to this element of the discipline until recently. If the efficiency of public health initiatives has been evaluated, and if so, how successfully, then the assessment of evidence on public health initiatives should reveal this. Examples of these tools include checklists for evaluating published research, regulatory requirements, and ethical principles for good practise in economic assessments, to name a few examples: a reference to a set of similar criteria that allows for the comparison of evaluations from different scenarios (Brownson,2018)
METHOD AND METHODOLOGY FOR RESEARCH IN HEALTH AND HEALTHCARE INDUSTRY
The data collection form utilised in this study was created by the study authors in order to collect information on the statistical methods described in each of the publications that were randomly selected. The form was subjected to a rigorous creation and testing procedure before it was made available to the research participants. The statistical methodologies described in each published publication were quantified using a closed-coding system, which we developed for the purpose of collecting our data. During a series of four pilot tests, three reviewers examined and classified papers from our selected journals for the 2014 publication year that incorporated statistical methods as part of a systematic review and classification process. As a consequence of the data collection process, the results in the following tables have been prepared in the appropriate way. Any variable that was chosen on the review form indicated that the variable had been reported in the research, whether explicitly or implicitly, in one way or another. The addition of domains for article type, study design, and sampling technique, as well as specific items in each for reporting statistical inference and testing, as well as reporting of missing data and causal inference, has resulted in a more comprehensive set of reporting requirements (Wiltsey Stirman,2019).
Health equity consequences of upstream public health programmes have been uncovered using systematic review methodologies in high-income countries, according to the researchers.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The researchers at Matranga et al. want to know if the psychological well-being of a group of medical students is connected with their adoption of healthy practises. They are conducting a study to find out.
According to the results of a recent poll, health-conscious college students look up to healthcare professionals as role models for their patients and for the general population. Furthermore, and probably more importantly, the link between morality and psychological well-being reveals an individual’s ability to overcome bad behaviour in many situations. A novel approach to the issue of health promotion is taken by Fujihara and colleagues in their study (Chaput,2019).
With the use of a prospective cohort design, an inquiry into the probable association between community-level social capital and the prevalence of IADL impairment in Japan’s older population is being conducted.
Community-based treatments that are aimed at boosting social capital at the community level, according to the findings of this study, may be able to aid in preventing or reducing the prevalence of IADL impairment in the older population. These two studies, one of which makes use of large datasets, are published in Occupational Epidemiology: A Special Issue on Occupational Epidemiology, which is available online In order to provide additional clarity, Maniscalco et al. explore the impact that a change in work has on one’s physical and mental health as well as on many elements of one’s life. The researchers discovered that among a sample of 10,530 Belgian employees who were followed for seven years, there was a higher risk of cardiovascular disease and a higher level of psychosocial stress. The findings were published in the journal Psychological Science.
Methodology
A paper by Verso and colleagues (Verso et al.) discusses students’ professional experiences in the workforce. According to experts at the University of Palermo in Italy, the prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) among undergraduate and graduate healthcare students is on the rise, particularly among female students.
They are also looking into the possibility of these students contracting an illness at their place of employment. According to the results of this study, which used a small sample size, long-term brain damage (LTBI) is uncommon among Italian university students. Patients’ close and continuous contact with healthcare workers and trainees puts them at danger of developing TB on a regular basis, and this is especially true for those who work in the medical field. According to state statute, university hospitals are required to implement comprehensive preventative measures.
- In this Special Issue there are two papers that are particularly noteworthy for their statistical methodologies: one by Trivelli et al., which describes the spatio-temporal distribution of cardiovascular mortality, and another by Maniscalco et al., which proposes a data-driven approach to investigating the interrelationships among health indicators.
- These researches have had a considerable influence on the domains of environmental epidemiology and health promotion, among other things.
- During the year 2010-2015, researchers looked into an area in Italy that had significant levels of air pollution and human activity.
- It was discovered that there was a spatial-temporal connection between environmental exposure to particulate matter (PM2.5 g/m3) and the risk of cardiovascular death in an area with a high level of air pollution and human activity by using a Bayesian smoothing technique.
- Whenever dealing with the BYM (Besag, York, and Mollié) random component, it is important to use a hierarchical mixed log-linear model with a hierarchical mixed log-linear structure.
- This is done inside a Bayesian framework of reference, which is completely accurate.
- The authors are able to incorporate extra-Poisson variability into their model by utilising a spatial-temporal data structure, which they describe in great detail in their paper.
An exchangeable or white noise lattice effect, as well as a conditional autoregressive model based on a Gaussian–Markov random field lattice effect, are both incorporated in the proposed model’s structural equations. There were three distinct pockets of high-risk for cardiovascular disease in Lomellina throughout the study period, as represented by smoothed maps showing relative risks for all of the years examined (RRs).
Critical Discussion
As a result of their findings, the authors conclude that this pattern has remained consistent throughout the research period, which spanned 2010 to 2015. A new model of organisational innovation based on Advanced Practice Nurse in the treatment of patients with ostomies (APN-O) training and experience has been developed by Galvez and colleagues to measure the efficiency of hospitals providing standard care based on this model.
Participants in the project include 12 hospitals in the Andalusian province of Granada. During a six-month study, the researchers looked at the clinical outcomes, healthcare resources, health-related quality of life, and willingness to pay of 75 patients who had been followed up with for six months According to the economic evaluation, ostomies have a stronger value-based healthcare system than other medical problems since it takes into consideration both direct and indirect expenditures, as opposed to other medical disorders.
According to the findings of this study, APN-O may have a good effect on the health of patients since it is both effective and efficient in treating them.
In the opinion of Li et al., the efficacy of Chinese hospitals may be assessed using a variety of criteria.
- When investigating efficiency and change in efficiency, Data Envelopment Analysis and the Malmquist index are first used to evaluate the relationship between them.
- They conducted their investigation between 2003 and 2016 in 29 provinces and 1336 hospitals, which they found to be a significant amount.
- As part of their second stage of inquiry, the authors employed the Theil index to examine the efficiency variations that were observed in the first stage of the investigation.
- Following that, the Grey correlation analysis is used to identify the components that are contributing to the inefficiencies in the production process.
- Township hospitals in the majority of provinces have witnessed an increase in efficiency, with the bulk of the discrepancy attributed to differences in intra-regional efficiency among provinces, according to the findings of the research.
Not to be overlooked is the need to increase the number of licenced physicians and physician assistants on staff, as well as the number of medical professionals who are managers in township hospitals in impoverished areas.
- Governmental initiatives in the field of public health have the potential to have a significant impact on the overall health of the population.
- The first and most important function of public policy is to create, manage, and preserve public goods that promote healthy living conditions for all residents.
- State highways and roads serve as an excellent illustration of this.
- It is via taxes and user fees that these services may be made available to the general public at a cost to the taxpayer.
When establishing how these roads will be created and maintained, several elements must be taken into account, including the accessibility of vital services and the walkability of neighboring
There is a possibility that these elements will either assist or impede people’s capacity to acquire the health care that they require. Additional information on the influence of transportation on public health may be obtained at the Transportation Research Board
- Natural resources may be managed by public authorities through the establishment of public norms in order to avoid harm
- Controlling air and water quality is the responsibility of environmental authorities such as the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, for example.
- Exposure to polluted air or water can result in a variety of health concerns, including asthma and diarrhoea, among others
- If a government policy is implemented in order to preserve the safety of the people, it may impose obligations and duties on its residents.
- Automobile accidents, for example, are a leading cause of death and injury in the world, according to the World Health Organization. Accordingly, seat belt legislation was created in order to solve this issue.
- In response to these regulations, there has been an increase in the use of seat belts and a decrease in the number of people injured or killed in automobile accidents.
- Another example of governmental rules aimed to safeguard individuals’ health and safety is the consumption of alcoholic beverages while driving. Fourth, public policies may be of assistance in a number of ways that have a direct influence on the health-related drivers.
Analysis
A programme called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) was established by the United States Congress in 1996 to aid low-income families that were experiencing financial hardship. Tennessee’s version of the programme is called as Families First, and it is co-funded by the state and federal governments, respectively.
Employability assistance is provided to low-income families in order for them to become self-sufficient.
Additionally, in addition to offering employment training and incentives, a short-term financial support programme is in place to aid with the purchase of basic necessities including food, housing, and transportation, among other things. Government policies that remove obstacles, open doors, or create incentives to do so can have an influence on the health-related decisions that individuals make. HOPE scholarships, such as those offered by Tennessee’s HOPE scholarship programme, are an example of how public policy may provide a chance to improve a health-related behaviour.
In Tennessee, students who are awarded HOPE scholarships can continue their education and further their careers without having to worry about the financial burden of college tuition and fees There have been several studies conducted that have revealed that education and income are the most reliable determinants of health outcomes.
Conclusion
Educational achievement and health-related outcomes are directly tied to one another.
More information on how education impacts health in Tennessee can be found in the article How Education Affects Health in Tennessee (PDF). An alternative approach would be one that provides financial incentives to individuals who make better health decisions, such as those who exercise regularly. For example, tobacco goods sold in Tennessee are subject to an excise tax on the amount of money spent on them According to some study, tobacco taxes may have the effect of discouraging certain individuals from smoking cigarettes.
REFERENCES
Brownson, R.C., Fielding, J.E. and Green, L.W., 2018. Building capacity for evidence-based public health: reconciling the pulls of practice and the push of research. Annual review of public health, 39, pp.27-53.
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Escoffery, C., Lebow-Skelley, E., Haardoerfer, R., Boing, E., Udelson, H., Wood, R., Hartman, M., Fernandez, M.E. and Mullen, P.D., 2018. A systematic review of adaptations of evidence-based public health interventions globally. Implementation Science, 13(1), pp.1-21.
Fernandez, M.E., Ten Hoor, G.A., Van Lieshout, S., Rodriguez, S.A., Beidas, R.S., Parcel, G., Ruiter, R.A., Markham, C.M. and Kok, G., 2019. Implementation mapping: using intervention mapping to develop implementation strategies. Frontiers in public health, 7, p.158.
Hartley, D.M. and Perencevich, E.N., 2020. Public health interventions for COVID-19: emerging evidence and implications for an evolving public health crisis. Jama, 323(19), pp.1908-1909.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5462407/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8036932/
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