INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH REPORT
1. Introduction
Research questions
Why, given the stark differences between the economic and political systems of China and Japan, has precarious work increased so significantly since the 1990s across both countries?
Rationale or justification
Precarious work has grown rapidly in both Japan and China since the 1990s for a variety of reasons, despite the differences in their political and economic systems. Globalization has been one of the main causes of insecure work in both nations because it has boosted labour rivalry and resulted in the expansion of the global supply chain. In order to maintain their competitiveness in the international market, several businesses in China and Japan have switched to a more flexible workforce model. As a result, non-regular and casual employment has increased, which is frequently characterised by poor earnings, little social safeguards, and scant job security (Kalleberg, Hewison and Shin, 2021).
Another factor contributing to the growth of precarious work in both countries is the declining power of labour unions. Labour unions have traditionally played a key role in protecting workers’ rights and improving their working conditions, but their influence has declined in recent years due to political and economic changes. In China, the government has sought to control labour unions, while in Japan, union membership has declined as companies have shifted to non-regular employment. Furthermore, in both countries, there has been a shift towards neoliberal economic policies that prioritize market competition and privatization over social welfare. This has resulted in a reduction in government intervention in labour markets, leaving workers more vulnerable to exploitation by employers (Li, 2019). As a result, there is now a pool of migrant workers who frequently face unstable working conditions and low pay. The ageing population and declining workforce in Japan have also contributed to the emergence of precarious work as businesses look to hire non-regular workers to lower labour costs and increase efficiency.
2. Main Body
2.1 The impact of globalization and neoliberalism in China and Japan
China and Japan have undergone significant changes due to neoliberalism and globalization, with both nations adopting policies such as privatisation and deregulation. China has implemented market-oriented reforms since the 1980s, while Japan implemented neoliberal policies in the 1990s to address economic stagnation (Okura Gagne, 2020). As a result, sectors such as telecommunications and power were deregulated, and state assets were privatised in Japan.
Globalization has allowed China and Japan to take advantage of international trade and investment opportunities, leading to significant economic growth and development. Both countries have experienced an expansion of their export-oriented industries, which has brought in foreign investment and generated employment opportunities (Kato et al. 2022). However, this growth has also contributed to income inequality and the emergence of precarious work. China’s labour contract law has improved protection for regular workers, but non-regular and informal workers remain without social security benefits and labour protections. Similarly, in Japan, non-regular workers often lack the same benefits and protections as regular workers despite being a large segment of the workforce.
2.2 An analysis of precarious work in Japan and China
Core cultural values and norms can have a significant impact on the growth of precarious work in Japan and China (Fu, 2021). Here are some ways in which cultural values and norms have affected the growth of precarious work in these countries:
Japan
- Lifetime employment: the cultural norm of lifetime employment has led to the growth of precarious work in Japan. As companies have shifted towards more flexible employment models, many workers have been left with non-regular and informal employment, lacking job security and social protections (Kreshpaj et al. 2020).
- Strong work ethic: the cultural value of a strong work ethic has also contributed to the growth of precarious work. Many workers in Japan are willing to accept non-regular and informal employment to remain employed, even if the terms of their employment are less favourable.
China
- Guanxi: the cultural norm of guanxi, or personal relationships, has contributed to the growth of precarious work in China. Non-regular and informal workers may be employed through personal connections rather than formal employment contracts, leading to a lack of job security and labour protections.
- Respect for authority: the cultural value of respect for authority has also contributed to the growth of precarious work in China (Kreshpaj et al. 2021). Many workers are willing to accept non-regular and informal employment to avoid conflict with their employers or the government.
2.3 Real-world organisational case studies
One instance of precarious employment in China is Foxconn, a multinational Taiwanese electronics contract manufacturer that makes products for businesses like Apple, Dell, and Sony. Foxconn has been under fire for its labour policies, which include using undocumented and informal workers, having lengthy workdays, and having subpar working conditions. A spate of suicides at Foxconn plants in 2010 brought the company’s labour policies to the attention of the entire world. Foxconn has improved its labour policies in response to criticism by increasing wages and shortening working hours. Yet, a sizable section of the company’s workforce is still made up of irregular and informal employees, and many of them still endure excessive hours and bad working conditions. Convenience store workers in Japan, employed on non-regular and informal contracts, face low wages, limited job security, and few social protections. In 2019, Family Mart workers went on strike demanding better working conditions and greater job security. While this led to some improvements, non-regular and informal employment continues to be a significant issue in the Japanese convenience store industry.
Conclusion
In conclusion, precarious work has increased significantly in China and Japan since the 1990s, despite the differences in their economic and political systems. Globalization, declining union power, and neoliberal economic policies have all contributed to the growth of insecure employment. In addition, cultural values and norms have played a significant role in shaping the labour market in both countries. The expansion of precarious work has resulted in significant challenges for workers in both countries, including low pay, poor working conditions, and a lack of social protections. It is crucial for policymakers and businesses to address these issues and ensure that all workers have access to decent and secure employment. This may include strengthening labour laws and protections, promoting unionization, and providing support for non-regular workers, including social security benefits and training programs. Furthermore, it is essential to recognize the impact of cultural norms and values on the labour market and to work towards building a fair and equitable system that values the rights and dignity of all workers.
Reference list
Fu, H., 2021. Social action as ‘a total social phenomenon’: Comparing leadership challenges facing community-based labour organizations in China and Japan. human relations, 74(9), pp.1396-1420.
Kalleberg, A.L., Hewison, K. and Shin, K.Y., 2021. Precarious Asia: Global Capitalism and Work in Japan, South Korea, and Indonesia. Stanford University Press.
Kato, M., Saito, N., Matsushita, R., Ueno, M., Izawa, S., Maruyama, Y., Sugita, H., Ono, F., Muroi, R., Miyazaki, Y. and Yamana, J., 2022. Philosophy of education in a new key: Voices from Japan. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 54(8), pp.1113-1129.
Kreshpaj, B., Orellana, C., Burström, B., Davis, L., Hemmingsson, T., Johansson, G., Kjellberg, K., Jonsson, J., Wegman, D.H. and Bodin, T., 2020. What is precarious employment? A systematic review of definitions and operationalizations from quantitative and qualitative studies. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 46(3), pp.235-247.
Li, J., 2019. Precarious work and labor market segmentation: a comparative study on mainland China and Hong Kong. The Journal of Chinese Sociology, 6(1), pp.1-22.
Okura Gagne, N., 2020. Neoliberalism at work: corporate reforms, subjectivity, and post-Toyotist affect in Japan. Anthropological Theory, 20(4), pp.455-483.
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