1. Definition of hazards and its characteristics

Aflatoxin is one of the most effective poisonous mutagens and carcinogens that is present in decaying vegetables, maize, cottonseed, tree nuts, and peanuts. This harmful toxin particle has belonged to the toxin family, which is produced by affective fungi on crops. It has grown in grains, hay, and soil.

There are a few methods such as “High-performance liquid chromatography”, “ELISA method”, “Electrochemical Immune sensor”, “Mass spectroscopy”, among others to quantify and detect this harmful poison in foods.

Figure 1: Contamination of Aflatoxin

(Source: MUHIE and BAYISA, 2020)

Consumption of foods that contain aflatoxin concentration of 1mg/kg or more than higher concentration has been suspected of a dangerous cause of Aflatoxicosis. As argued by MUHIE and BAYISA (2020), this severe poison, aflatoxin has been produced by a fungus such as an Aspergillus flavus. This fungus can be recognized by a mould of the yellow-green or grey-green mould and plant stress for drought, insect damage due to the fungus growth has increased more rapidly.

Characteristics

• It has the type of poison mutagens that are present in the peanut, corn, cottonseed.
• According to WANGIA et al. (2019), it has to belong to the fungus family of aspergillus species that is found in decaying plants and soil.
• Aflatoxins M1, M2, G1, G2, B1, and B2 have been marked as the most common types of derivatives of the poison, Aflatoxin.

Figure2: Chemical structure of Aflatoxin

(Source: WANGIA et al. 2019)

• Aflatoxin is a common name regarding the secondary metabolites that have been produced by the Aspergillus fungi, initially, Aspergillus nomius, Aspergillus parasiticus, and Aspergillus flavus. All of these types of fungi mainly produce the few members of a chemical group of aflatoxin including- AFB2, AFG2, AFB1, and AFG1.
• As per the view of ABU AGELA et al. (2018), an animal feed can be the reason for transmitting the Aflatoxin mutagen into the meat, milk products, and eggs. This harmful poison has part of the family of fungal toxins mainly known as “Mycotoxins”.

2. Summaries some incidents regarding the general impact of hazards   on food safety

There have several incident that can help to describe the toxic effects and health hazards of aflatoxin on food safety. Here has chosen more than three case studies to visualize the harmful impact on food safety. Based on the first case study, here recognize food that is marked as highly susceptible to aflatoxin contamination (Jyi.org, 2020). Initially, in the year 2004, has created a harmful health issue that can identify food safety on maize, staple food grains in Kenya.

WHO estimates that through consuming 171 grams of corn, Kenyans have been affected by these harmful health problems. These food supplies by aflatoxin have primarily been recognized as a human health problem as a result of the death of more than 600 affected people (Jyi.org, 2020). Heavy exposure to aflatoxin can highly occur in the Utero, via human breast milk uptake through weaning food as well as throughout the individual’s lifetime.

The second case study has described that according to the 2008 scenario, six infant babies have died due to kidney damage. Along with this, more than three lakh babies have been severely affected by the painful kidney stone from consuming tainted baby milk formula (Bbc.com, 2013). After testing all of the compounds which are present in baby milk formula from several Chinese milk firms was found containing melamine. Almost all of the baby milk suppliers company and largest supermarkets in China shelve has been severely tainted by a few scandals. Therefore, the Chinese mother has been severely affected by the long-term effect of this incident as those mothers are afraid of breastfeeding their babies. According to MORAL et al. (2020), all of the worried mothers have a hand on imported baby milk that has caused the UK’s retailers as well as anywhere to ration sales.

According to the third case study, discovered more than 50 years ago, this severe poison namely aflatoxin has been found as a ubiquitous contaminant of the supply of human food products. Throughout the advanced economically developing global era, an adverse group of the population has been severely affected by the contamination of aflatoxin mutagen in food particles. Here has generated the acute impact of this toxin in the impaired growth of children. As argued by MUHIE and BAYISA (2020), affected people have highly suffered from an increased level of serious liver cancer who are chronically affected with “Hepatitis B virus (HBV)”.

Another case study from Tanzania has shown a high impact on human health by aflatoxin mutagen, which has mainly been caused by aflatoxin contamination and Aspergillus flavinus in maize. As mentioned by STEPMAN (2018), the poor input on their agriculture practices, storage, and improper handling of grain has a type of the main issue in their agriculture department. Along with this, inadequate action and knowledge, the critical weather condition in the management has marked as the main cause of rising rapidly the aflatoxin. Tanzania was initially popular for the dietary staple of maize, however, through contamination of fumonisins and aflatoxin in their largely cultivated crop. The farmers mainly use susceptible varieties and poor technology in their agriculture field, therefore a large amount of fungus has grown up in the food resulting in severe health issues.

3. Critical analysis of one case study considering the human factors and resources

Choosing the one case study from the above discussion has mainly identified the reason, affected people, place, causing symptoms easily. This incident has also considered all the human factors as well as human resources regarding the related case study have. Based on the Kenya case incident in 2004, there has generated a severe health issue due to consuming higher concentrations of aflatoxin in the food particles. WHO has described the reason due to contamination of aflatoxin with food particles such as maize.

Number of affected people

Based on this case study, there has affected more than 600 people by consuming poison contaminated food. As per the influence of WANGIA et al. (2020), the aflatoxin concentration has developed more than normal level in their body, therefore the high-risk factor also rising rapidly. Not only these 600 people died due to consuming the toxic particle namely aflatoxin with their food. Many more people are also affected who have suffered from severe health issues such as kidney damage, liver problems.

Symptoms of the problem

Some symptoms that are observed in the body due to Aflatoxin infections are as follows-

• Vomiting
• Nausea
• Abdominal pain
• Bleeding
• Itching
• Sclera and yellowing the skin colour
• Oedema
• Lethargy

All of these are marked as the most common symptoms that have been recognized from the selected case study in Kenya. As per the view of WANGIA et al. (2020), Kenyan people have largely been affected by the rising condition of severe types of health issues that can cause death as well as kidney and liver damage.

Causing the problem

According to the case study scenario, the main problem occurred due to improper levels of crop storage in warm conditions. On the other hand, the severe level of humid conditions also markers as the cause of this affected problem in the Kenyan population as result in to thrive (Sciencedirect.com, 2020).  Here the main sources are also identified and some possible reason behind the hazard impact in Kenya has mainly occurred due to the presence of more than 150 grams aflatoxin in maize as it can dissolve with the contaminated food particle. Therefore, the cause of the problem has been generated by the high dose of aflatoxin as it can harm the human body including the acute level of hepatitis and cancer growth.

4. Discuss the impact of the hazard on consumer’s health

This poison can affect animal and human health as it creates chronic or acute toxic effects on health. Molecular aflatoxin can affect the “posttranslational peptide chains modification”, “formation of free radicals”, “DNA mutation”, “methylation of nucleic acid”. Through consuming that maize, the Kenyan people have severely affected through the short and long-term exposure to toxic mutagens. The body organ has mainly been impacted by the increasing level of aflatoxin more rapidly as well as the popularly has critically suffered by the organ tissue damage. Continue ingestion and long-term exposure to aflatoxin can be the reason for damaged cell tissue as well as occurring cancer in the human body (Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, 2017).

Aflatoxin can hamper the entire body organs, and affect the health such as liver tissue damage, the problem in the respiratory tract, kidney damage, gene mutation, growth rate, impact in the digestive system. On the other hand, it can affect other body parts including problems in the urinary tract, severe changes in pathological effects, changes in the nervous system, impact on the reproductive system, severe changes in gene expression, high changes of immunosuppression (Fao.org, 2020). Result in decreased resistance as well as susceptibility to TB, HIV also some other opportunistic infections. A severe range of carcinogenic effects such as the high occurrence of cancer and teratogenic effects such as birth defects also can happen due to the cause of aflatoxin.

The incident of food hazard with Aflatoxin if not creating an outbreak but can have long-term impact on consumer’s health. According to the view of CHAUHAN et al. (2016), most human exposure to Aflatoxin can happen from consuming nuts and grains. There are several types of aflatoxin but in nature, only four can be found to have the impact as they can occur in major food crops. Long-term exposure to Aflatoxin can take a role in creating serious long-term health sequences in humans.

Aflatoxins can be found to have carcinogenic nature that can play a harmful role in affecting all organ systems. As stated by XIANG et al. (2017), long-term consumption of Aflatoxin can cause cancers for liver kidneys as well as other types of cancer. Along with this, aflatoxin can have an important role in creating fatty liver syndrome, affecting the liver in humans. Apart from this, having consumption of Aflatoxin contaminated foods regularly can be a cause of kidney inflammation leading to the failure of kidneys.

Another harmful effect of having this hazard in the food material can be considered as the decreasing ability of digestion. As per the view of WINDHAM and WILLIAMS (2016), consuming aflatoxin can play an important role in decreasing mainly the ability of absorption of protein and fat. Apart from this, this can help in impairing the breakdown of carbohydrate as well as decreasing the power of mobility. This can also help in creating a chance of diarrhoea leading to dehydration that can lead to a severe problem.

Along with this, it can be found that Aflatoxin harms the nervous system. As per the view of SHARMA et al. (2018), long-term exposure to aflatoxin can play an important role in influencing depression as well as abnormal behaviour. This can be considered as the most harmful effect of this contamination as depression can create chances of several diseases. Along with this, aflatoxin can play an important role in affecting the human reproductive system. According to the view of REN et al. (2017), this can help in reducing sperm count as well as helps in creating the possibilities of infertility. Along with this having, long-term exposure to Aflatoxin food hazard neonatal outcomes of low birth weight can be found.

5. Identify the common factors

It can be found that maize can be used for various reasons for making foods in different countries. As per the view of SMITH et al. (2017), flour that can be used to make the ugali needs only added water in the making. Maize can be found to use for the making of another traditional dish. An incident in Kenya was recorded, that a scar from ugali has been found. According to the media, this was caused by the infection of Aflatoxin in the raw material of ugali that is maize.

Not only in Kenya but also in Tanzania it can be found to have an infection of Aflatoxin in maize. In the case of Tanzania incidents, most of the farmers from there can be found to be unaware of Aflatoxin. These two incidents can be considered as the same category as wrong farming as well as negligence in reducing the chances of Aflatoxin infection among the farmers can be found (SMITH et al. 2017). For the consumers this can be harmful in both the countries as the infection from Aflatoxin may have long-term consequences.

Apart from this Aflatoxin, contamination can also be found in dairy milk production. In the case of dairy cows, the ingested AFB1 can be metabolized into AFM1 leading to the poisoning of milk. This incident can be noticed in China, as there was a fear of baby milk. Apart from this in the central region of Kenya, there was also a fear to be infected by the contamination of Aflatoxin. According to the “Kenya Ministry of Health” preliminary laboratory, testing of food can be found with a high level of Aflatoxin. That can play an important role in enhancing the future occurrence of infection by Aflatoxin contamination. This incident can have an association with the previous outbreak of Aflatoxin.

This can play an important role in influencing the occurrence of public health problems across the country. Apart from this, Aflatoxin contamination of milk can also be found in India as well as in Pakistan. According to the media, it can be found that Aflatoxin contamination can have a significant effect on human health. The milk samples from Gilgit in the northern area can be detected with the contamination of Aflatoxin. These incidents have an association with the incident in China. However, Aflatoxin contamination in the food can play an important role in making human health risks as well as can help in leading them to death. It also creates a chance to make a long-term effect even if not creating any outbreak.

6. Recommendation and implementation

Aflatoxin can be found to have a severe effect not only in current time but can affect human health on a long-term basis. As per the view of SUN et al. (2018), having hygienic products in the case of consumption can play an important role in making human health more secure. Taking prevention in order to reduce the production of aflatoxin can cover environmental sanitation in food production as well as in food growing and storage areas can be done. Apart from this some prevention, method should be taken during harvesting as well as in post-harvesting conditions (JU et al. 2019).

A prevention programme should follow various steps from cultivation through harvesting, post-harvest handling of crops, drying, processing and many more. According to the view of FU et al. (2018), in order to decrease Aflatoxin infections in foods, proper handling at the time of storage is necessary needed practice. For example, in order to avoid quality loss as well as to prevent problems involving fungal attacks or attacks from insects like navel orange worm, tree nuts need to be harvested as soon as possible after the maturation. Along with this soil treatment with the use of Methyl bromide, can be fruitful in order to reduce the contamination of Aflatoxin (SMITH et al. 2017).

Apart from this in the case of picking young trees, clean traps should be used as well as should try to avoid contact of the nuts with litter and soil. According to the view of MAURO et al. (2018), this can be achieved by providing the farmers with the training of proper harvest practices. This training can involve providing knowledge about the harmful effect of Aflatoxin on human health. This can help in making an understanding of the importance of avoiding improper practices during harvesting.

In order to ensure the safety of the post-harvesting process storage of harvested crops needs to be done in 0-degree temperature and the relative humidity should be lower than 70%. Apart from this having practice on removing defective nuts from the harvested crops before storage can be helpful. According to the view of WINDHAM and WILLIAMS (2016), nuts should be hulled as well as dried as soon as possible after harvest in order to minimize decay and shell staining. Apart from this fumigation should be done at the storage area by the application of Methyl bromide. Besides this, the use of phosphine can play an important role in reducing the risk from the insects. It can be necessary to fumigate the storage area at a periodic basis according to the duration as well as the condition of the storage.

It can be implemented by making the farmers educated in the use of these pesticides as well as fumigation chemicals. Both the maize as well as the nuts seeds should be harvested carefully in order to reduce the chances of Aflatoxin infection. Making the farmers know by arranging a program on the awareness of reduction of Aflatoxin infection (JU et al. 2019). Educating the farmers about the importance of taking safety measures during harvesting can help implement the processes to reduce Aflatoxin contamination.

Making the farmers educated about the proper use of pesticides and the gap in the application that should be to reduce fungal infections can be helpful. As per the view of KOSHIOL et al. (2018), other safety measures like using light reflectance in the case of storing nuts as well as maize seeds can be useful. Making farmers know about the importance of using this type of safety measures can lead the environment to reduce Aflatoxin infections. Along with this, it can help in reducing the incidents in the society like “Kenya’s Ugali Scare”, “Chinese Fear for infection through milk” and many more. This can have an impact on ensuring the safety of human health also. Thus taking preventive measures as well as making farmers educated about the importance of reducing the amount of Aflatoxin in the food materials can help prevent several long-term human health consequences.

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